Farm sector entrepreneurship
By Jagveer Rawat
TODAY the competition in all the fields of life has expanded due to radical advancement in the modes of communication and transportation. World has virtually shrunk. To the information privileged section of the world society, the world appears a “global village”.

Constraints in pulse production
By V.P. Prabhakar
THE production of pulses in the country is still facing a number of constraints like their cultivation on rainfed, marginal and sub-marginal lands, high susceptibility to insect-pests and diseases, weather aberrations, lack of genetic breakthrough and diversion of pulses area to other more remunerative crops as and when irrigation facilities become available.

Determining sex of cow embryo
By Shirish Joshi

AN Indian farmer prefers to have sons only when starting a family of his own, but when it comes to his cows or buffaloes, he prefers them to bear female offspring only. The reason behind this seemingly odd behaviour is obvious. A cow is his factory for milk and future cows.

Bulls are useful for ploughing his fields only, but the number required is small, and with the use of tractors, the requirement of bulls is going down further. As of today male calves are sold away or slaughtered legally as well as in a clandestine manner.

The solution lies in developing an efficient and relatively inexpensive technique so that cows or buffaloes could be made to bear male or female calves by choice. Now a team of veterinarians led by Dr Shyam Zawar, working at Raymond Embryo Research Centre, Gopalnagar in Madhya Pradesh, has perfected a technique that can determine the sex of an embryo from a few cells removed from the fertilised and developing embryo before its implantation in a cow. The first bull or cow calves by choice were born in January, 1997. It is an extension of embryo transfer technique (ETT) developed in India by him.

Dr Zawar, whose team achieved this success, was born in 1951 at Washim in Maharashtra. He was educated at Bombay where he obtained his BSC degree in veterinary science and animal husbandry in 1972 in first division. He obtained his master’s degree in veterinary science in 1974 and joined the Sheep and Wool Research and Development Division of Raymond Woollen Mills at Dhule in Maharashtra.

He was first scientist in India to start embryo transfer technique (ETT) in sheep and goats. While at Dhule he visited Nigeria and prepared a project report on the ETT for the Government of Nigeria.

As a result of his pioneering work, the farm was recognised as a research station for students of master and doctorate courses in veterinary sciences. In 1983, he was appointed General Manager of the Raymond Embryo Research Centre at Gopalnagar in Madhya Pradesh. The main object behind establishing this centre was to improve the breed of cattle in India to achieve self-sufficiency in milk production.

As every one knows all living organisms have sex chromosomes. The males carry one X and one Y chromosome while the females carry two X chromosomes. As X chromosomes are present in either a male or female embryo, the obvious step was to develop a method of identifying the presence of Y chromosomes. The scientists then thought of removing two-three cells from the embryo without damaging the rest of the embryo and to determine its sex at this very early stage of development.

The cells were examined for the presence of Y chromosome only. If the cells indicated its presence, the embryo was a male one and would develop into a bull calf. It was kept separately and stored in liquid nitrogen. The absence of Y chromosome indicated that it was a female one and would develop into a cow calf. This was also frozen and stored separately in liquid nitrogen.

With the application of this micromanipulation technique, 66 embryos collected from genetically superior high milk yielding cows through the ETT were separated into male and female groups. Out of these 30 were found to be females, while the rest 36 were males.

Two embryos, one male and the other female, were implanted immediately into the recipient cows brought into state of readiness to receive embryos, while the remaining were stored. Such embryos can be kept in frozen state for a number of years. They can also be carried to distant places for use but in liquid nitrogen only.

The verification of the success of the technique came after a few months. The cows, which had received embryos whose sex were known, gave birth to healthy blemish free calves. The sex of the calves agreed with the sex of the embryo as determined by the scientists before implanting. This major breakthrough has opened up vast possibilities of establishing embryo banks in the country storing male and female cow embryos.

The first calf through the ETT was born at Gopalnagar in April, 1987. The same technique can be applied to goats, sheep, buffaloes and even human beings. Apart from the birth of hundreds of calves through the ETT, since its establishment, the centre has many other firsts to its credit. It was the first to achieve the birth of twins as well as triplets in cows.

The cows bred at the centre give up to 49 litres of milk a day. Twins who were fathered by two different sets of parents were also born at the centre. One was through artificial insemination method commonly practised these days. The other was through the ETT. The centre is also recognised as a key source for supply of genetically superior bulls born out of the ETT.

Selective ETT can play a major role in raising the milk production in India. Milk and milk products are exported regularly to neighbouring countries. The research work done by Dr Zawar for Indian dairy farmers is far more important than the creation of Dolly by Dr Ian Wilmut at Edinburgh through cloning.

Farm sector entrepreneurship
By Jagveer Rawat

TODAY the competition in all the fields of life has expanded due to radical advancement in the modes of communication and transportation. World has virtually shrunk. To the information privileged section of the world society, the world appears a “global village”.

The plethora of progress achieved has undoubtedly opened the doors for various kinds of opportunities on one hand; paradoxically the very same process has expanded the avenues of destitution. Since the age of mercantilism, the primary produce or raw materials based exchange, has been a predominant form of trade. In the past 100 years, predominantly suppliers of the primary produce are the relatively poorer countries, often called “developing countries”. India continues to be a developing country due primarily to the dependency of its majority of inhabitants on agriculture as a mean of earning the livelihood.

The possession of top technologies is an attribute dependent on the monetary status of the person or a nation. The “triumphs” of technology signified by many potent symbols in this century — Internet and biotechnology occupy position of prominence. These technologies are believed to be enhancing the schism between primary producers and the traders. The former is deprived of any meaningful knowledge as well as information about their appropriateness. Institutions representing fairer practices in the world trade like World Trade Organisation have left much to be done to protect the genuine interests of the affected sections. Rounds of negotiations between the developing and developed countries under the General Agreement of Tariff and trade (GATT) are alleged to be favouring the stronger nations. One of the important consequences of this unfavourable bargain, which the developing countries have accepted, is that the international trade is being conducted without offering a level-playing field to the weaker party. The ongoing banana trade war between the European Union (EU) and the USA is a case in point. While the former seems to be providing a protective market for the Caribbean banana producers, the USA, with its banana interests represented by plantation of banana by its multinationals in Latin America, is forcing the EU to let its cheaper banana be imported by the EU instead of relatively costlier banana from the Caribbean.

Such instances have further enhanced the scale of threat to the unfortunate and unorganised primary producers. The monopolistic multinational farming firms have surely and strongly come for forging and ongoing but possibly one-sided battle with the unorganised farmers. This has implication on the morale of the producers of crops, vegetables, fruit, flowers, dairy produce, etc. While there is no doubt that this trend is going to push the Indian farmer to graduate from an amateur to a more professional status, the biggest worry is whether this transition would be a smooth affair.

While it is no secret that the Indian farmer after Independence has a battery of miracles to his credit, expressed in common terms as “Green” and “White” revolutions. On the one hand, this contribution has ensured much-wanted food security in the area of foodgrain and milk, the achievements are skewed as the production miracle remained restricted to selected states in the Union of India. Even within a state, relatively well-off sections of society have been benefited the most. The farmers with fragmented land holdings and the landless have generally been recipients of the lesser or negligible rewards. This has found expression in continuous deterioration in standard of life for the people living below the poverty line in the country.

After the advent of the era of liberalisation of the economy in India, the farmers in various states are increasingly switching from traditional grain crops like rice and wheat to the agricultural produces which seem to fetch higher prices. The trend is signified by the increasing area under cultivation for sunflower in Haryana and recent attempts of the farmers to cultivate strawberry, mushroom, mentha and flowers. Farmers with little genuine backing of the government or the private sector have launched the projects of such crops. There seems not to exist and organisational framework amongst such producers. It has been noticed that these valiant efforts of some of the enterprising farmers have met with mixed degree success. It is a point for the researchers to record the percentage of successful farmers in these pursuits, however, the author has valid reports from the media, journals and by his personal investigations that the farmers have suffered severe blows over the years due to a cut throat competition provided by the growers in other states, and more importantly for certain crops, it is the international competition which has broken the back of the “entrants” into the field of production of such producers as mentha and flowers. The other promising area of fresh produce like vegetables and fruits has been too risky due to many reasons and Indian contribution in their exports, therefore, has been abysmally low (less than 1 per cent of the world trade). Though there are some sign of hope as market in the area of food and food processing industry in constantly expanding but the rules of game now are tough and game being played involves mega stars. The caution bell, therefore, has already been ringing for quite a while. The government, private sector, universities and R&D institutions cannot afford to sleep as their survival is also dependent on the thriving agriculture sector.

One of the most important requirements for the farmers is the provision of right kind of market information or intelligence and this package in form of guidance should give power to their associations to get a say in the fixation of the prices of their produce. The market information in fresh agricultural produces like vegetables, fruits, flowers and milk is still in infancy and is not provided in an update like manner in the district headquarters. There are agricultural marketing societies working in most states. Again, they are purely bureaucratic organisations.

A professionally incompetent farmer has to live with irrelevant or almost non-existent technical and business support. His future, though surely lies in adapting to an entrepreneurial mould, but it is a far cry for the underprivileged sections of society who rarely understand it. The government and private sector organisations have all to come forward in this endeavour. The training has to be the first step which has to be supported by a regional set-up of technical and enterprise councils. The TECs are not necessarily to be established solely for the agricultural entrepreneur but could include allied industries and various support services. The TECs could harness the human, technological and financial resources for the entrepreneurs of a region. The TEC model as in practice in England, can be established by the equal contribution of the government and the private sector in India. The management of these organisations should be in the hands of truly business-oriented professional derived from business, government and academia. The availability of appropriate information could guide them about available opportunities or enable them to sense the debilitating threats.

Constraints in pulse production
By V.P. Prabhakar

THE production of pulses in the country is still facing a number of constraints like their cultivation on rainfed, marginal and sub-marginal lands, high susceptibility to insect-pests and diseases, weather aberrations, lack of genetic breakthrough and diversion of pulses area to other more remunerative crops as and when irrigation facilities become available.

Besides, these limitations, the production of pulses has been depending upon the behaviour of monsoon.

This is the reason that the production of pulses fluctuates too much. Their production had touched the highest in 1990-91 when it reached 142.6 lakh tonnes. The next year it slumped to just 120.2 lakh tonnes. It reached 142.50 lakh tonnes in 1996-97 but again came down to 130.70 lakh tonnes the next year, according to the annual report of the Union Department of Agriculture and Cooperation for 1998-99. Though the target for 1998-99 was fixed at 155 lakh tonnes, the likely production is 147.8 lakh tonnes. However, the exact figure for 1998-99 is not available yet.

The National Pulses Development Project (NPDP) covers 195 districts in 26 states and union territories. The scheme is being implemented on the 75:25 sharing basis between the Central Government and states. However, in the case of union territories, the entire expenditure is met by the Central Government from the funds provided under the scheme.

The total outlay of the scheme for 1998-99 was Rs 46.8 crore out of which the central share was Rs 36 crore. The crop-wise production of major pulses is as under (in lakh tonnes):

The total production of pulses achieved and the amount of funds released to different states under the National Pulses Development Project as central share during the Eighth Plan and 1997-98 is:

The major programme components covered under the NPDP are production of breeder, foundation and certified seeds and distribution of certified seeds and seed mini-kits, organisation of frontline demonstrations and block demonstrations distribution of sprinkler sets, distribution of improved farm implements and plant protection equipment, distribution of rhizobium cultures and micro-nutrients and organisation of farmers’ training, etc.

As regards oilseeds production, it has been consistently increasing after the setting up of the technology mission in this respect. The oilseeds production, which was 108.3 lakh tonnes in 1985-86, has increased to 243.80 lakh tonnes in 1996-97. However, it came down to 220.20 lakh tonnes in 1997-98. For 1998-99, the production target of 270 lakh tonnes of oilseeds was fixed but it is not likely to be achieved as during the kharif season, the crop coverage under oilseeds was reported to have been affected because of prolonged and excess rains in some states.

The crop-wise production of oilseeds in 1996-97 and 1997-98 is (in lakh tonnes) rapeseed 66.60 and 47.10, soyabeen 53.80 and 65.30, sunflower 12.50 and 9.40, castor 9 and 8.40, groundnut 86.40 and 78.50, sesamum 6.40 and 6.00, niger 1.50 and 1.60, linseed 3.10 and 2.40 and safflower 4.50 and 1.50.

The oilseeds production programme (OPP) is being implemented in 23 states covering 381 districts. The major components of the programme are production and purchase of breeder seeds, production of foundation seeds, production and distribution of certified seeds, distribution of seed mini-kits and development of infrastructure like seed storage, threshing floors and irrigation at government farms.

In the Ninth Five-Year Plan, Rs 37 crore has been approved for research and development under the post-harvest technology. The major thrust area would be to commercialise the technologies developed in the Eighth Plan through setting up demonstration units in the identified potential lications. Besides, need-based commercially viable projects would be undertaken. An outlay of Rs 8 crore is approved for 1999-2000.

Wheat:

— For the late sown wheat, prefer to sow short duration varieties like PBW-373, Raj 3765 and PBW-138.

— For the control of loose smut of wheat, treat the seed with Bavistin/Agrozim/Derosal/Benor/J.K. Stein/Sten 50/Provax @ 2.5 g/kg or Raxil @ g/kg seed or with Vitavax @ 2 g/kg seed.

— For the control of root rot, seedling blight, black tip and black spot of glumes, treat the seed with Captan or Thiram @ 3 g/kg seed. Captan and Thiram treatment should not be done earlier than one month of sowing as it affects seed germination.

— For the control of ear-cockle disease put wheat seed in ordinary water and agitate vigorously for a few minutes. Ear-cockle galls will float to the surface. These may be skimmed off with an ordinary sieve and burnt.

— Phalaris minor and wild oats can also be controlled by spraying Isoproturon herbicide two to four days before first irrigation. On heavy textured soil, use Isoproturon 75 WP @ 500 g/acre, In the case of medium textured soils, Isoproturon 75 WP can be used @ 400 g/acre. In the case of light textured soils, the dose can be reduced to 300 g/acre of Isoproturon 75 WP.

— For the control of phalaris minor in addition to the recommended herbicides, Metoxuron 80 WP @ 750 g/acre (commercial), Illoxan 28 EC @ 1.2 1/acre of Graps 10 EC (Tralkoxydim) @ 1.41/acre can also be applied 30-40 days after sowing i.e. after first irrigation when the field permits walking. For the control of mixed infestation of phalaris minor and certain hardy broadleaf weeds, 2, 4-D @ 250 g/acre can be tank mixed with Isoproturon.

— Wild oats, another serious problem of wheat can also be controlled with spray of Illoxan 28 EC @ 1.25 l/acre of Grasp 10 EC @ 1.4 l/acre or Metoxuron 80 WP @ 450 g/acre (commercial) in 200 litres of water after first irrigation. Illoxan 28 EC and Grasp 10 EC can also be used in barley for control of weeds like phalaris and wild oats.

— For the control of Isoproturon-resistant biotype of phalaris in the rice-wheat cropping system, use Topik 15 WP (Clodinafop) @ 160 g/acre of Pumasuper 10 EC (Fenoxaprop ethyl) @ 400 ml/acre or Leader 75 WP (Sulfosulfuron) @ 13 g/acre. Spray either of the herbicide in 100-120 litres of water after 30-35 days of sowing wheat by using flat fan nozzle.

— For the control of broadleaf weeds only, use 2, 4-D @ 250 g/acre at 35-40 days after sowing in case of normal sown (October-November sown) and 45-55 days after sowing for late sown wheat (December sown)

— The wheat crop requiring first irrigation should be irrigated after four weeks of sowing. On light-textured soils or kallar soils, first irrigation should be advanced by one week.

— Progressive Farming, PAU