War and weaponry in the Arthashastra
A slice of history
By A.P.N. Pankaj

"THERE are", says A.L. Besham in his famous work The Wonder That Was India, "according to the Arthashastra, three types of conquest: righteous conquest (dharma-vijaya), conquest for greed (lobhavijaya) and demoniac conquest (asuravijaya). ... The two latter types are generally disapproved of by all except the Arthashastra". Clearly, Kautilya, the author of the Arthashastra, believed that the main motive of war was to capture the enemy’s territory and raise a great empire. The Arthashastra, it has been admitted at the end of this monumental work of the 4th century B.C., was composed by the author "who in his anger, retrieved the science, the weapons and the land that had been occupied by the Nanda kings". It is, in this sense, a unique work. Quite frequently, the author refers to the views and prescriptions of his predecessors on various elements of state craft, discusses them threadbare and, finally, propounds his own views, often with unquestionable logic.

The entire edifice of defence has been built by the Arthashastra, on durga, the fort, and danda, the army. However, the four major frontier posts in principal directions meant to protect the entry points were natural fastnesses secured by water, mountain, desert or forest. The border between the two posts was guarded by the frontier guards (antapalas).

The durga (fort) had "three moats outside and a rampart with a parapet on top, built of bricks or stones. On the parapets, there should be turrets at intervals and arrangements enabling archers to shoot without exposing themselves". The paths to the fort were strewn with various kinds of traps to hinder the progress of enemy troops. According to Kautilya, a fort must have plenty of supplies stored in it since it may be used as shelter for long periods.

Each division of the four types of fighting units — infantry, cavalry, chariot divisions and elephant divisions — was headed by an adhyaksha. Thus, there were pattyadhyaksha, rathadhyaksha, aswadhayaksha and hastyadhayaksha. The armoury was under the charge of a special superintendent who was in charge of the weapons. He saw to it that they were appropriately stored so that heat, moisture and insects did not damage them. The weapons invariably carried the king’s insignia.

The Arthashastra also makes mention of the corps of physicians to look after the wounded. This corps was equipped with drugs, bandages and other equipments. The text also refers to the women employed to cook for troops.

Training of the forces was of utmost importance. Martial arts were to be practised daily and the king was expected to frequently inspect various units to see that they remained fighting fit. Equally important was the loyalty and discipline among the ranks. They were to be thoroughly guarded and policed.

A unit of the army consisted of 45 chariots, 45 elephants, 225 horses and 675 footmen. Five of these detachments constituted a full battle array (samavyuha). A wide variation was, however, allowed depending upon the requirements in a particular combat and availability of resources. The Arthashastra advises that heavy infantry should be employed in the centre, with light infantry, chariots and cavalry on the wings. The elephants were generally placed in the centre and the archers took up positions behind the spearmen.

As for the ranks, the officer-in-charge of 10 units was designated as patika, while 10 patikas were headed by a senapati — a general — who was equal to a minister, a purohita or a yuvaraja. A mention of mahasenapati, chief of staff, has also been made. Senapati or mahasenapati took his orders directly from the king who was the supreme commander. Besides the generals, there were nayakas and dandanayakas.

Although references have been made to ‘fighters in water’ (nimnayodhin), R.P. Kangle who has extensively studied and researched the Arthashastra, opines that the text "does not refer to fleet of armed vessels, nor does it describe the mode of fighting in water or naval warfare". Though naval warfare has not been mentioned in the Arthashastra, it has been extensively cited in ancient Indian literature.

A variety of weapons have been cited for the purpose of fighting on the battlefield, defending the fort and for violating the enemy’s defences. These have been broadly classified under four categories as yantra (machines), ayudhas (weapons), avaranas (shields) and upakaranas (other accoutrements). Arthashastra also refers to a large number of machines to throw huge stones on the enemy troops. We also find a mention of aindrajala karma (magical practices) and aupanishdika karma (secret practices).

As many as 10 types of fixed machines (Sthayiyantras), 16 types of mobile machines (chalayantras), 11 types of weapons with piercing points and three types of bows with five types of bow strings, some of them requiring use of the sinews of animals, have been mentioned. The arrows were of five kinds and their tips were made of iron, bone or wood for the purpose of cutting, piercing and striking. The swords were of three types, and horns of rhino and buffalo, the tusk of elephant, wood and bamboo root were used to form the hilt of the swords. A variety of razor-sharp weapons, stones, metals and fabrics have been mentioned. Sixteen types of shields, to cover various parts of body, have been cited.

Before attacking the enemy, the king was obviously expected to satisfy himself that he was superior in all respects to the opponent. Kautilya, in this context, talks of shakti (strength), desha (terrain) and kala (the season). Three types of shakti i.e. utsaha, prabhava and mantra have been mentioned. Utsaha stands for the energy, bravery and personal drive of the king himself. Prabhava refers to material resources, including the treasury and the army, while mantrashakti means good counsel and diplomacy. Kautilya is of the view that mantrashakti is the most important of all three.

"For launching the expedition", the author says, "the months of margashirsha (Nov-Dec), chaitra (March-April) and jyeshta (May-June) are suitable for long, medium and shor durations of campaigns". Kautilya also says that a fight must never be begun unless reserves are stationed behind the array at a distance of about five hundred yards.

The Arthashastra recommends that just before the beginning of the battle, the king, aspiring for victory, should get his troops together and motivate them. He should point out that he himself is only a servant like them. Handsome cash incentives should be announced by the senapati for killing various ranks of the enemy starting with the enemy king and down to the ordinary soldier. Officers are to make a note of the exploits of the soldiers under them.

Though Kautilya has not particularly stressed on the ethical and moral considerations in war, he does lay down that seven categories of people — those who have fallen down, those who have turned their back on fight, those who surrender, those whose hair are loose as a mark of subjugation, those who have abandoned their arms, those whose appearance has changed on account of fear and those who are not taking part in the battle — should not be attacked.

In the event of victory, Kautilya says the victorious king must do everything in his power to conciliate the conquered people. If their economy has suffered badly, he should declare tax exemption. Ministers of the vanquished king should be won over, law and order should be restored as quickly as possible. While visiting the conquered country, the victorious king should wear the local dress and follow local customs.