...............................Features in detail

European influence in Indian medical field
By Pramod Sangar
A considerable interest is shown in the study of the history of science today as it deems to be an important aspect of evaluating man’s cultural patterns. Medicine is a natural art born out of the instinct of self-preservation. The need to learn and develop the medical knowledge must have arisen out of the sheer necessity of overcoming injury, sickness and pain. Surgery is another survival skill which seems to be as old as hunting and warfare.But it is rather unfortunate that we do not have sufficient source material on scientific history as more emphasis was laid on military or political history by the contemporary historians in medieval times.There were various constraints for the progress of medical science or technological innovation. The study of ‘science’ or scientific ideas was confined to a select class of people who preferred to preserve it with diligence and care in the form of elaborate commentaries. The caste distinction was another “hazard” in the quest of scientific achievements as the people of low caste were denied educational training. Politically a sense of insecurity seemed to have been round the corner of the Indian society in the later medieval period.The roots of the oldest existing medical system in India can be traced back to ayurveda, ayur means duration or span of life and veda means unimpeachable knowledge. Hence the importance of this “system” was mainly based on the prolongation of a healthy life and prevention of disease. It is a continuing science and quite popular even today. Its origin cannot be credited to any age, place or person despite many legends to the contrary. Our knowledge of this ancient science comes mainly from the surviving written treatises, the oldest of which are the samahitas, charka and susruta. Therefore, the common translation of ayurveda is “science of life.”The medical science touched its high point during the Buddhist period when Ashoka established various hospitals for the masses. Magesthenes, an accomplished Greek historian and a writer, describes physicians as next in honour to ascetics. “They are simple in their habits, but do not live in the fields....By their knowledge of pharmacy they can make marriages fruitful and determine the sex of the offspring. They effect cures rather by regulating the diet than by use of medicines. The remedies most esteemed are ointments and plasters.”
Another important system which found mention in medieval period is the ‘unani tibb’ (Greek medicine). It is also called the Arabian medicine by the western scholars, since it came down to them through the Arabic medical writers. It is known unani for it originated in Ionia of Greek Archipelago. This system reached India with the advent of Muslims in India around the 11th century. But on the other hand, we find the Hindu medical system made its way to the court to Khalifa Harun-al-Rashid in the 8th century through the Arabs. Alauddin Khilji, Mohammad Tuglaq and Feroze Tuglaq were patrons of the unani system of medicine. The Feroze Tuglaq had a comprehensive knowledge of unani tibb, even wrote a book Tibbe Firuzshia. He had established 70 hospitals in Delhi alone. It is also noteworthy that some of the Indian texts on medical science were usefully translated by the orders of Muslim rulers. During the time of Sikander Lodi, hakims and vaidyas worked together.
During the Mughal period, the popularity, progress and glory of unani tibb touched new heights. The rulers gave the hakims a much higher position and paid them high salaries. Thus the Mughals attracted to India highly qualified hakims from Iran and other places. They also established a network of free public hospitals (shafakhanas) in all large cities of the country.
Akbar, an outstanding ruler, was quite considerate towards the sufferings of mankind. He employed physicians from Goa, where Linchoten, a Dutch traveller, writing at the end of 16th century, remarked that the doctors were native Christians, who gave themselves airs and had umbrellas held over them, and were more trusted by the Portuguese from the Viceroy downwards, than their own doctors.
Jahangir, too, started hospitals, and appointed doctors to attend to the sick. He had a French physician, Bernard, on his staff and suitably rewarded him for his great service.
It is widely known that the Europeans initially came as traders, but had to face a lot of difficulties due to the unfamiliar climate conditions in cities like Bombay, Madras, Balasore and Calcutta. Their debauchery and intemprence further added to their woes and health problems. Many died premature deaths in India. A hospital was constructed by the orders of President of the English East India Company, John Aungier. During 1677, 400 out of 500 Englishmen perished and were buried there. They died due to the spread of cholera. Even later, Sir John Child refused to join his work in Bombay “in terror of climate.” In view of the large-scale sickness among the Englishmen, two principal surgeons — Dr John Fryer and Dr John Bird — were appointed to attend to the difficulties of the sick but they failed to do much in this regard as these were beyond their comprehension.
Describing the hospital of Calcutta, Alexander Hamilton, another reputed English traveller, remarked, “Pretty good hospital...but few come out to give an account of operation”. This is quite true as out of 1200 Europeans, 460 were buried in one year at Calcutta during 18th century. Dr John Fryer, a notable English surgeon who visited India in 1672, speaks of Goa physicians as ‘great bleeders’. He had a poor opinion of the Indian doctors at Surat, as he remarked. “They will submit to spells and charms and the advice of old women”.
Two of the doctors of the English East India Company played a significant role. Gabriel Broughton (1646) treated with great success the daughter of Shahjahan, who had been terribly burnt. He was rewarded with the grant of the right to trade in Bengal. Another doctor William Hamilton (1715) cured the impotency of Ferrucksiayar who was not getting married “on account of his illness”. In gratitude the patient presented Hamilton with a trade firman
Though doctors commanded good respect among the people, they were poorly paid by the company. The company’s surgeon at Madras received only £ 36 per annum. Even at Bombay doctors like John Fryer and John Bird and others were poorly paid by the company. At that time the company was certainly not liberal with doctors.
These doctors also faced difficulty while treating native women. They were only allowed to feel a hand thrust through a hole in a curtain. In order to test the doctor’s skill often a healthy slave girl took the place of the mistress. When De Lan attended the Queen of Golconda, Tavernier, a French traveller, says that he (De Lan) was first bathed by eunuchs and old women, anointed with aromatics and dressed in native garments. Before he bled her majesty, his hands were again washed and bathed in a scented oil. That being done, they drew a curtain, and the young queen putting an arm out through the hole, the surgeon bled her”. Later on the fee was paid to the doctor in gold coins.
The early surgeons gained all the knowledge of anatomy from the dissection of sacrificial victims. But the religious taboos or constraints became more apparent and were further intensified by ‘Brahmanism’ which showed its annoyance at touching a corpse by a Hindu or Brahmin doctor.
In the succeeding period of two centuries it was thus Europe and particularly England which provided a social situation, that was favourable to certain new intellectual endeavours. India could well have looked towards Europe and taken inspiration from what was happening there. The Europeans who brought with them new theories of medical science proved to be of immense help in building ‘scientific temper’. An interaction between the English and Indian doctors proved to be a turning point in the history of medical science in India.
But the first attempt to impart western medical education to natives was made by the English East India Company. The medical education in the 17th century was in the elementary stage but made rapid strides during the succeeding centuries. The credit goes to the English East India Company to initiate and impart medical education to the Indians, though the latter had initially shown reluctance in accepting the ‘western view’ of medical science. But the English doctors showed tenancity towards their profession in India, greatly impressing the Indian youngmen to accept the medical profession. And we find that in 1844 the first batch of four Indian students (Bhola Nath Bose, Chandra Seal, Dwarkanath and Surji Coomer) left for England for medical training under the guidance of Dr Goodeve in the University College of London.

Green suburbs in grimy Ludhiana
by Vasu
Sprawling green undulating land dotted with trees, parks, swings, crystal blue pools, clubs and air as fresh as it can get, a mere 20 km from polluted and filthy Ludhiana. If all this sounds more like an advertisement or dream, think again. For the suburbs of Manchester of India are not adhering to the pattern which the money- spinning city has followed till date. In a city, where nearly 300 of the 600 odd residential areas survive and function without the essential basic facilities, the suburbs have assumed great importance. Agricultural land has been gobbled up at a very rapid rate by a city fast expanding out of its limits. Today, prime developed land in the suburbs, whose developers have been granted licenses by Punjab Urban Development Authority (PUDA) is available for rates ranging between RS 30 lakh and Rs 40 lakh per acre. Even bare land without any amenities or a approach road touches Rs 8 lakh per acre. Of the several colonies coming up in the surrounding areas, the average cost per sq. yard ranges between Rs 1200 and Rs 1500 with prime colonies here having waiting lists and rates of around Rs 2000 per sq. yard. Even for unauthorised areas, costs vary from Rs 800 to Rs 1000 per sq. yard. Interestingly, these rates are prevailing in a market facing a major recession everywhere in the country. The reasons are not hard to understand as the suburbs are viewed as the final and only option left for beginning afresh in a city where infrastructure planning has always taken a back seat.
“It was way back in the early sixties that the urban segment became aware of the need for proper civic amenities in residential colonies”, says Y P S Bhalla, who is developing the 300- acre South City in the vicinity of the town.
The post-1965 period saw uncontrolled urban rise which led to the development of suburbs to meet the growing pressure on existing housing colonies of the city. Agricultural land was bought out from the farmers and colonised. This is how Agar nagar colony and the area adjacent to Budha Nallah came up, he says. Ludhiana was, surprisingly, the first city where suburban development took off, largely due to workforce pressure exerted by the expansion of the hosiery, steel and worsted mills in the region. It was at this time that units were being rapidly set up and expanded by the Oswals, Hero and G S States. Before 1970, the land rates at the outskirts of the city were in the range of Rs 15 to Rs 20 per square yards, and the government even acquired agricultural land for as little as Rs 8 per sq. yard. Even in the main city areas, the going rate for residential and prospective residential land was between Rs 100 to Rs 125 per sq. yard. It was at this point of time that the government became aware of the haphazard development taking place as an off shoot of industrial expansion and planned to take steps. However, like several other government plans, stringent rules were framed to check the growth but they were never really implemented.
In neighbouring Haryana, Act no. 10 or the Regulation of Colonies Act, 1971, was introduced to check private builders, which Punjab copied and enacted some five years later. The Act, which outlined several restrictions, asked for guarantees for planning according to the master plan and development according to the PUDA laws. Land use restrictions were also defined as per the requirement of the government. Due to the inaction of enforcement agencies in Punjab the Act did not lead to any organised development. However in Haryana, the government enforced development guidelines and the colonies set up by the Ansals, Unitech and DLF in the area, now part of the National Capital Region, are an offshoot of this Act.
Had a similar Act been enforced in Punjab, the situation, especially in areas adjoining Ludhiana, would have been different, says Bhalla. Over 300 colonies have come up in the city, which are unauthorised and unplanned, after the implementation of this Act. At a conservative estimate, the same number were developed or underdeveloped before the Act. Thus, the city has over 600 dwelling areas without proper basic civic amenities. Over 60 per cent of the colonies here have no basic framework and it is only now that the municipal corporation has started the uphill task of taking up colonies one by one to improve the living conditions there.
Barring the suburbs, where everyone with spare cash is putting up money, land prices in the city are on a perpetual downslide. In the prime Mall road area, the rates have declined from Rs 30,000 per sq. yard to Rs 20,000. Likewise Sarabha Nagar and Bhai Randhir Singh Nagar are down to Rs 5000 from the earlier Rs 7000 per sq. yard. With hardly any purchasers in the market, commercial property rates have also slipped by about 25 per cent. Even areas like Feroze Gandhi market do not have any buyers, says Jaswinder Singh Virk, a property dealer here.
Meanwhile, the expansion (mostly unauthorised) of the city continues and as a local joke goes that even if Tughlak comes he will not be able to demolish unauthorised structures.