Universe: Buddhism was pushed out, or pulled out?

Buddhism that rose in India around 500 BC did not thrive in the land of its origin after 1200 AD. When people speak of how Buddhism was driven out of India — either by Brahmins or Islamic invasion — they often overlook the possibility that Buddhism could have simply moved out to greener pastures, to lands of receptive kings.

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In Buddhist lore, the decline of Buddhism was always prophesied, in keeping with the doctrine of impermanence. It was related to the failure of kings to protect Buddha’s legacy (sasana). But this failure was compensated by the resilience of monks. Brahmins believed journeys to distant lands would result in loss of caste. The fear also restricted the movements of Jain monks. By contrast, Buddhist monks were adventurous, willing to travel to spread Buddha’s word.

Much of Buddhism’s initial success lay in its appeal to foreign kings such as Yavanas, Shakas and Kushans, who controlled the Gandhara-Mathura-Ellora-Sopara-Amravati trade routes between 200 BC and 200 AD. When the Shakas and Kushans were pushed out by local kings, Buddhism moved with them to Central Asia.

India, which was the centre of the Buddhist world, or Jambudvipa, in 700 AD, came to be seen on the edge by 1700 AD. By then, China was known as the land of Manjushri, Mongolia the land of Vajrapani Mahakala, and Tibet the land of Avalokiteshvara Padmapani. The most magnificent Buddhist temples and pagodas were built in South-East Asia: Angkor Wat in Cambodia, Borobudur in Java, Ayutthaya in Thailand, Bagan in Burma, and Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. The last of the great Buddhist kings in India was Harshavardhan of Thaneshwar, a contemporary of Tang dynasty in China, and Prophet Muhammad in Arabia.

The Theravada school of Buddhism had reached Sri Lanka by the 5th century AD. It spread further in the 10th century to Burma and Thailand. Meanwhile, the Mahayana school of Buddhism became popular in China from as early as 300 AD. Chinese emperors imported relics from India and imitated Ashoka in building stupas. They sent monks to study original texts in Nalanda and other universities.

New forms of Buddhism emerged in the East, focused not on Gautama Buddha, but more on future Buddha Maitreya, wise Buddha Manjushri and King Buddha Amitabha, of Pure Land Buddhism. There was even a female Bodhisattva, Kwanyin.

In Tibet, the Vajrayana, or the occult school of Buddhism, thrived from 1000 AD, introducing ideas such as “war magic”. Buddhist Mahakala and the fierce Heruka deities of Tibet were venerated by the Mongols who conquered China.

Opposition to Buddhism began in the Ganga river basin during the Gupta period, 400 AD. Gupta kings saw themselves as the wild-boar Vishnu-Varaha saving the earth and dharma from Buddhism-patronising foreign rulers. Sun-worshipping Hunas attacked Buddhist monasteries in Gandhara in north-west India and wiped out Taxila universities around 500 AD. In the Deccan region, long-trade routes collapsed with the fall of the Roman Empire. Attention of kings, after 600 AD, shifted from trade to agricultural income. Brahmin skills in managing farm lands through temple-corporations made them popular amongst Chalukyas, Pallavas, Pandavas, Gangas and Cholas.

By 800 AD, India had three major religious influences: a powerful Buddhist lobby in the east led by Palas, a dominant Jain lobby in the south led by Rashtrakutas, and a significant Shaivite presence in the north led by Gurjara-Pratihara. Many wars were fought between the three. Hindu hagiographies from India and Nepal, composed after 1300 AD, claim that Adi Shankara (who lived around 700 AD) won many debates against Buddhists. But Tibetan books, composed after 1500 AD, claim he lost to Buddhist masters. Relying on texts is unreliable.

By 1000 AD, the Buddhist Palas were replaced by Shiva and Vishnu worshipping Senas. Jain Rashtrakutas were replaced by Shiva and Vishnu worshipping Chalukyas and Gangas, and later Hoysalas, Kakatiyas and Yadavas. After 1300 AD, Islamic Sultanates stopped supporting Buddhist universities. To survive, many monks migrated to Sri Lanka and South-East Asia.

Emphasising the “pushing out” of Buddhism frames it as a passive victim. Its “pull out” strategy in response to local hostility, and greater opportunities in foreign lands, reminds us that even ideologies can have agency.

— The writer is an acclaimed mythologist